Surrogate Mothers and Human Enhancement Dilemmas Assignment - 1

Surrogate Mothers and Human Enhancement Dilemmas - Assignment Example   Moreover, the mother becomes alienated from her labor as well as the child thus violating the mother’s right to consideration. Through the concept of alienation, Anderson (1990) further indicates that commercial surrogacy reduces pregnancy to a form of drudgery performed for money motives, which is against the societal norms. What’s more, Anderson (1990) responds to the objection that the women sign a contract and agreed to be surrogate mothers by articulating that the contract does not guarantee the surrogate mother peace of mind as it merely treats moral transformation as any other economic exchange. Disparagingly, the surrogate agency strives to strike the best deal while leaving the surrogate mother in a position that she can hardly protect and/or serve her interests. Moreover, the woman might have signed the contract out of desperation and vulnerability, a factor which exposes her to exploitation by surrogate agency hence mothers should be allowed to decide what to do with the pregnancy, and surrogate contracts should not be enforceable (Anderson, 1990). Biotechnology is often used in enhancing human nature. However, the entire concept is often contentious with proponents and critics articulating various reasons for and against the use of biotechnology in enhancing the nature of human beings. Buchanan (2009) responds to the objection of using biotechnology to enhance the nature of human beings by accentuating that people possess some characteristics that are not always ideal whereas Parens (2005) provides a context-specific of female Viagra to indicate why biotechnological enhancements are not always viable. Human beings, from a philosophical standpoint, consist of dispositions that shape their behaviors.  

Mid-term Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mid-term Assignment - Essay Example They have brought most of the world influential markets together to breach the boundaries and limits to allow global flow. Through technology, they have been able to offer transport and make efficient communications to the target markets. This has in turn cut down costs that keep most participants out of the market. They have managed to liberate trade activities (Intriligator, pp. 3) with economic liberation being the main topic. Through this, so many changes have happened in that the way the world trade currently is smooth and with minimum barriers. Even if this kind of liberation was started by most countries during the world war, China and the United States have managed to actualize it in time when the world needs it most. This contribution has lowered the trade charges. Factors of production discourage most countries from participating in international businesses. However, these two nations provide the most important factors of production; capital and labor that boost the developing nations. Since they are superpower nations, they have made sure that most of the international markets and links are open to all those willing to take part in. Institutional changes have played a key role in globalization. With improved technology, most companies have managed to expand their market bases. Initially, with little technological knowhow, most of these companies valued local markets. The introduction of great technological means has revolutionized how they operate. This means that their profit have gone beyond their imagination. United States and China have huge multinational companies that are shaping up the industrial structure. Through this, there is increased productivity, power and profit generation because all resources are being utilized. Another good way of incorporating firms is through the use Nongovernmental organizations. These two nations have a will to support the

Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing the internal audit functions

Advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing the internal audit functions Internal auditing is an appraisal or monitoring activity established within an entity as a service to the entity. It functions are, among other things, examining, evaluating and reporting to the management and the directors on the adequacy and effectiveness of components of the accounting and internal control systems. An internal audit department in an organization is set by the management or appointed by the board of directors to whom it is answerable. It is headed by the chief internal auditor assisted by the internal audit staff to help cater for the following: To ensure that the business is operating in an efficient and orderly manner. Ensure adherence to management policies. Safeguard the fixed assets of the company and control the current assets. Determine the accuracy and reliability of the company records and accounts. Ensure adherence to companys statutory requirements. Reasons for internal audit function Due to increase in business size, which has reduced the efficiency of the management to have full control of the business, it has become increasingly important for large businesses to have an internal audit function. There is need for improved controls in large companies with branches/subsidiaries as it is hard for the management to supervise such companies. Dynamism in business due to economic, social and technical environment all call for change in the management attitudes and constant appraisal for a change. Responsibilities Regularly examine the accounts to determine their accuracy and reliability. Independent appraisal of the business activities to determine their reliance, accuracy and completeness. Review the company policies, operations and procedures to agree with expectations and standards. Establish and programme adequate accounting system and effective forms of control. Report to management regularly in respect to ICS, e.g., adequacy of staff and development of computerized systems. Act as a consulting department to other user departments e.g. sales, accounting, purchases etc. Provide advice to the management in respect to the changes in the economy and their changes in economy and their changes impact on the industry where the client business does operate. Prepare and present the companys budget. Supervise the progress of the company. Other services to the management. Communication between staff and management Coming up with staff welfare strategies e.g. staff promotion circles for the client. Advantages of internal audit Facilitate the achievement of company policies such as budget targets etc. Enhances the presence of a strong internal control system. Acts as a preventive measure against errors and fraud through constant checking of accounts. Enables external audit to be completed in time i.e. with strong internal control system external auditor will rely on an internal auditors work. Ensures that the company assets are safeguarded against misuse or theft by dishonest employees. Being an employee of the company, an internal auditor is more knowledgeable with the problems facing the company which he will try to solve by advising the party responsible for the proper management of the company. Internal audit ensures compliance with statutory requirements within the organization. Internal audit ensures as far as possible the completeness and accuracy of the records. Disadvantages of having internal audit Over reliance by the management will make the staff take advantage of perpetrating frauds. It is ideal for large companies as it may be very expensive to maintain and thus unaffordable by small companies. Lack of support by management kills the morale and ability to perform its duties effectively. Internal audit reports may be misleading because they do not have liability to the owners of financial statements. Internal auditors may collude with staff leading to misappropriation of resources. Outsourcing the internal audit functions This is the process whereby the management purchases the services of auditing from outside. This is because monitoring and reviewing required by certain companies could be done in a small amount of time and full time employees cannot be justified or it may be expensive to maintain an internal audit function consisting of employees. Advantages Service providers have good quality staff i.e. have specialized skill and assess what management wants them to do. Also they have a high degree of professionalism since the service providers are trained in many areas enhancing the quality of advice to the management on best practices. Outsourcing can provide an immediate audit department instead of employing audit staff thereby cutting costs e.g. salaries to the employees, benefits and allowances. Outsourcing enhances independence and there is minimal room for collision thereby giving value added reports i.e. there is real value for money. Outsourcing enhances the auditor in understanding the business environment policies and procedures thereby increasing the credibility of the financial reports and reducing their liability. Disadvantages The cost of outsourcing the internal audit functions might be high to make the directors not to have the internal audit functions at all. The company might use the same firm for internal and external audit services leading to inferior reports. Outsourcing leads to duplication of efforts if the same procedures are used in gathering evidence in the final audit. Outsourcing is not ideal for small businesses with few transactions. External audits may bring leads to interior reports. I.e. Influence or cause unwanted changes in the way the organization operates. Assessment of internal auditors work Before placing any reliance on the work of the internal auditor, the external auditor must assess the internal auditor and his work in the following areas: 1. Independence: The internal auditor may be an employee of the organization but may be able to organize his own activities and report his findings to high-level management i.e. directors. 2. The scope and objective of the internal audit functions This includes reviewing accounting systems and internal controls, also examining financial and operating information by management including resting of transactions and balances. 3. Due professional care to be useful to an external auditor The internal auditors work must be done in a professional manner i.e. properly planned, controlled, supervised, recorded and reviewed. 4. Technical competence Internal auditors should be members of professional bodies and follow professional ethics in performing their work. Also they should have computer knowledge in performing audit in computerized systems. 5. Reporting standards A useful internal auditor will provide a high standard of reports which are acted upon by management. 6. Resources available An internal audit department that is starved of resources will not be very useful to the external auditor. Factors that influence the external auditor in deciding on the extent to which he may rely on the work of the internal auditor The materiality of the areas or the items to be tested or the information to be obtained in the audit exercise. The level of audit risk inherent in the areas or items to be tested or in the information to be obtained. Specialized skills possessed by the internal audit staff i.e. the level of experience and qualification. Independence of the internal auditor i.e. whom they report to. The level of judgment required i.e. how the internal auditor has gathered and arranged the report and quality of working papers. How the internal auditors have acquired evidence e.g. seeking legal advice from advocates, seeking information from valuers, etc. The efficiency and strength of internal control system. Ways in which the internal audit department can assist the external auditor during his audit work The external auditor can use the internal auditors working papers to gather evidence concerning the companys operations, programs etc. Also the internal auditor can explain technical operations or controls used by the company. He can undertake verification of assets in particular mobile assets, assets held by third parties and branches or subsidiaries which the external auditor may not have a chance to physically verify during his presence. Internal auditors can prepare schedules relating to items in their accounts e.g. asset schedules, debtors schedule, creditors schedules etc which are important for comparison to be made by the external auditor. Internal auditor will pin point the weak areas in control systems which the external auditor will concentrate on.

Cause and Effect Essay: Divorce Causes Problems For Children :: Cause and Effect Essays

For a child, it is very hard loosing a parent. The child's life becomes more stressful because of economic loss and the loss of a supportive parent. Since many children do not adjust well, their behavior is affected. The change is devastating for many children and it affects their entire life. Divorce of parents causes many problems and affects children negatively. The loss of a parent can cause loss in knowledge, skills, and resources from the parents. They loose such things as support from the parent in finances, emotions, and care. Children tend to have a harder time dealing with a divorce the more divorces their parents go through. The better the parents adjust to these losses, the better the children will adjust, and the fewer problems that will come about. When the child is in a single parents home, there is usually a loss of money and therefore, resources. This can lead to the child being jealous of other children and having lower self esteem. Another cause that affects a child with divorced parents is that the child may have a more stressful life. The child may have to change schools with any move that may result from the divorce. Also, if the child is not old enough to take care of himself or herself and the now single parent works, the child would probably have to start attending a child care program. A child could have to alternate between parents in different houses which is also very hard on a child. The adjustments to different settings and what days he or she is at which house can be confusing and stressful. In a divorce, the parents usually do not get along and may have different opinions on items. They may go to court and fight against each other about what factors caused the separation leading to the divorce and how the properties are divided. This possible exposure is very unhealthy for a child. The child sees his parents fighting and may learn from the behavior and display it. He or she may see that behavior as being an acceptable action. The fighting behavior of parents causes behavioral problems within a child. The child may hear things from one parent about the other that causes the child to take sides when he or she should be learning not to be biased and to love both parents equally.

Codependency: Family and Co-dependency this Condition

Co-dependency is a learned behavior that can be passed down from one generation to another. It is an emotional and behavioral condition that affects an individual’s ability to have a healthy, mutually satisfying relationship. It is also known as â€Å"relationship addiction† because people with codependency often form or maintain relationships that are one-sided, emotionally destructive and/or abusive. The disorder was first identified about ten years ago as the result of years of studying interpersonal relationships in families of alcoholics.Co-dependent behavior is learned by watching and imitating other family members who display this type of behavior. Who Does Co-dependency Affect? Co-dependency often affects a spouse, a parent, sibling, friend, or co-worker of a person afflicted with alcohol or drug dependence. Originally, co-dependent was a term used to describe partners in chemical dependency, persons living with, or in a relationship with an addicted person. Sim ilar patterns have been seen in people in relationships with chronically or mentally ill individuals. Today, however, the term has broadened to describe any co-dependent person from any dysfunctional family. What is a Dysfunctional Family and How Does it Lead to Co-dependency? A dysfunctional family is one in which members suffer from fear, anger, pain, or shame that is ignored or denied. Underlying problems may include any of the following: †¢An addiction by a family member to drugs, alcohol, relationships, work, food, sex, or gambling. †¢The existence of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. †¢The presence of a family member suffering from a chronic mental or physical illness. Dysfunctional families do not acknowledge that problems exist. They don’t talk about them or confront them. As a result, family members learn to repress emotions and disregard their own needs. They become â€Å"survivors. † They develop behaviors that help them deny, ignore, or avoid difficult emotions. They detach themselves. They don’t talk. They don’t touch. They don’t confront. They don’t feel. They don’t trust. The identity and emotional development of the members of a dysfunctional family are often inhibited Attention and energy focus on the family member who is ill or ddicted. The co-dependent person typically sacrifices his or her needs to take care of a person who is sick. When co-dependents place other people’s health, welfare and safety before their own, they can lose contact with their own needs, desires, and sense of self. How Do Co-dependent People Behave? Co-dependents have low self-esteem and look for anything outside of themselves to make them feel better. They find it hard to â€Å"be themselves. † Some try to feel better through alcohol, drugs or nicotine – and become addicted. Related essay: Shame is Worth a Try Others may develop compulsive behaviors like workaholism, gambling, or indiscriminate sexual activity. They have good intentions. They try to take care of a person who is experiencing difficulty, but the caretaking becomes compulsive and defeating. Co-dependents often take on a martyr’s role and become â€Å"benefactors† to an individual in need. A wife may cover for her alcoholic husband; a mother may make excuses for a truant child; or a father may â€Å"pull some strings† to keep his child from suffering the consequences of delinquent behavior. The problem is that these repeated rescue attempts allow the needy individual to continue on a destructive course and to become even more dependent on the unhealthy caretaking of the â€Å"benefactor. † As this reliance increases, the co-dependent develops a sense of reward and satisfaction from â€Å"being needed. † When the caretaking becomes compulsive, the co-dependent feels choiceless and helpless in the relationship, but is unable to break away from the cycle of behavior that causes it. Co-dependents view themselves as victims and are attracted to that same weakness in the love and friendship relationships.

Ethics for the Real World

ETHICS FOR THE REAL WORLD Creating a personal code to guide decisions in work and life RONALD A. HOWARD & CLINTON D. KORVER Hanle Ying Special Topics in Accounting March. 16, 2011 Introduction Within the development of human culture, ethics has been more and more emphasized in human beings. Ethics is not only requested in the work place, but also it should be requested in individuals. Ethics is an extremely helpful in human daily life. For the work place, ethics can help people to trust each other, allow people to know clearly what they can do or not do, and assist their efforts with each other to create a true market in the world.For the individuals, ethics can help to correct people’s attitude about life and to help them build a positive outlook. However, no matter whether in the work place or in an individual’s life, ethics can create a personal code to help people to make the right decision. Reading ETHICS FOR THE REAL WORLD-creating a personal code to guide decisio ns in work and life not only can help us know what ethics is and how we can draft a personal code to help us make the right decision, but it also lets us know how we can use ethics to transform our life and work.It’s really a good book on ethics and very practical for human beings. This book represents the different thinking of ethics and provides a personal code for people who working; individuals can use the code of ethics to examine their own ethical problems so they can make the right decisions during work. In the real world, there are many behaviors that look ethical, but are not. Conversely, some behaviors look unethical, but are ethical. Since we cannot always discriminate what is really ethical, we sometimes have a dilemma in making a decision.However, the description in this book, expressed by the authors help us to know what ethics is and he helps us to build an ethical framework and draft a personal code in our mind. We can use the ethical framework and the persona l code to help us make the right decision. The authors also demonstrate that people can use three steps to help them to clarify the ethical issue, evaluate the consequence of the behavior, and in the end, make the right decision. Moreover, ethics not only can help people make the right decision, but it also can help people to transform the work and life.Author Biography The names of the authors are Ronald A. Howard and Clinton D. Korver. â€Å"Ronald A. Howard is one of the founders of DEF, who is the academic director of the Strategic Decision and Risk Management certificate program at Stanford University. He supervises teaching and research in the Decision Analysis Program of the Department of Management Science and Engineering and he also is the director of the department’s Decision and Ethics Center. Moreover, Mr. , Howard is a professor in the Stanford Graduate School of Business.His experience covers many fields in decision analysis project, from investment planning to research strategy, and from hurricane seeding to nuclear waste isolation† (2011). Furthermore, â€Å"Mr. Howard has been a consultant to several companies and was a founding director and chairman of Strategic Decision Group† (2011). Clinton D. Korver not only is the co-author of Ethics for the Real World, but also â€Å"he is a partner and co-founder at Ulu Ventures, a Silicon Valley venture capital firm investing in early-stage information technology companies.He is also a Kauffman Fellow, co-founder and co-president of Stanford Angels & Entrepreneurs, and a venture partner at Crescendo Ventures† (2008). Moreover, â€Å"Mr. Korver is the founder and CEO of DecisionStreet, which provides Web-based tools to help consumers make information life decisions about health, wealth, housing, and family affairs† (2008). Mr. Howard and Mr. Korver wrote Ethics for the Real World-creating a personal code to guide decisions in work and life in 2008.In order to create t he habit of highly ethical behavior, Howard and Korver help us to know what ethics is and how we can discriminate ethical issues in our daily lives. In addition, they help us to use ethics to make the best decision in every situation. Summary of Book It’s a good book on ethics, and the authors use a practical approach to talk about what ethics is. The purpose of the authors in this book is not to stimulate people to get high ethics in their mind. Contrarily, they want people to know and study ethics through the tiny little things around us. People do some things or make some decision unethically because they think he decision seems unimportant; however, they still want others to respect and trust them. They even want to continue live in a harmonious environment. But their actions and thoughts are reversed. As a result, this is one of the reasons why people sink into the ethical dilemma. The book provided many theories to help people to understand and study ethics, such as som e behavior seems ethical for one, but he still has to confirm if it’s ethical for another; one could look analyze another’s ethical behavior when one sinks into the ethical dilemma; and one could set up an ethical code to help him to correct his ethical problems.But the one of reason why people do the unethical things are they often misunderstand the meaning of ethical, legal, and moral. Someone considered poor ethical as poor moral. Also the legal behavior is considered ethical, and illegal behavior is considered unethical. Actually, there is a total difference between ethical, legal, and moral. Something could be legal, but it’s unethical, such as lie, using profanity to someone. Something could be illegal, but it might be ethical, such as killing terrorists. Therefore, the most important issue for people when knowing ethics is to be able to discriminate the meaning of ethical, legal, and moral.This topic was expounded clearly in the beginning of the book. Thi s book combined four parts: Introduction, seven chapters, an epilogue, and two appendices. Furthermore, the authors combined these four parts very logically, especially in the seven chapters. The authors provided the almost ethical at first, and give a roughly ethical frame in people’s mind, through know and study the ethics to create the personal code. And then use the personal code to do the ethical behavior or make the ethical decision. In the end, the authors demonstrate that the ethics can help people transform their work and life.This sequence is coincidence with people’s thinking and easier to be understood by people. The Introduction not only reflects the rough content of the rest of the book, but it also includes a short summary of each chapter, the engineering approach, and the clarification of the difference between ethical, legal, and moral. Moreover, it also includes the experience of both authors. This introduction is very helpful for people to know what the book is and how to use this book. In addition, the introduction also talks about the skill of making the right decision, it is a weakness we often have because we have little education in this area.The seven chapters can be divided into four parts: the first three chapters, the fourth chapter, the fifth chapter, and the last two chapters. The first three chapters represent what ethics is and the problem of setting up an ethical bottom line. Actually, ethics is not very strange for each person; everyone has a rough framework about ethics, but most of us don’t know the real meaning of ethics. Everyone wants to be an ethical person, and most people have an ethical bottom line to contrast their ethical behavior. This bottom line is very important for each person.But people always sink into the ethical trouble because the ethical bottom line. Certainly, someone utilize this bottom line and the loopholes in the law to build a gray area, doing something between right and wrong. Everybody knows that to tell a lie is unethical behavior, but some use white lies to prevent crime or war; why not? I think most of us would rather to tell this lie. Therefore, there are no fixed rules for people to study ethics. People should learn and analyze the ethics of other’s ethical behavior and set an own ethical bottom line to do the right things or decisions.The fourth chapter is based on the first three chapters. After people know what ethics is and set up an ethical bottom line to distinguish what they can do or not do, they should create their own ethical code to complete their ethical framework. The main purpose of the fourth chapter is to show people how to draft someone’s own ethical code. The fifth chapter talks about how some people to do nothing when facing unethical issues. Although people can make the ethical code by themselves, it does not mean they will be ethical all the time. In this situation, people have to re-clarify the ethical issue and t ry to create alternatives.Moreover, in order to ensure the feasibility of their alternatives, people have to evaluate the alternatives and then re-make the ethical decision. The last two chapters stated how people use their personal ethical codes to transform their personal life and work life. Having a good ethical code is very important to our daily lives. It not only helps us to distinguish what we can do or not do, but also it can make us face life and work peacefully. This has the most positive effect on our daily lives. The book is composed by the skill of ethical thinking and the ethical decision making.The main purpose in the Epilogue stated how people developed the habit by this skill. However, the habit is developed through constant practice, and the practice is directed by thoughts. Therefore, having good ethical thinking skills not only can help people to make the ethical decision, but also can help develop the right habit in their life. The Appendix A is the flow chart o f ethical decision making process which not only helps us know better what ethics is, but also we can use this flow chart to compare our ethical frame to correct and complete our weakness in ethics.The Appendix B talks about the three people’s ethical code that has totally different backgrounds. And the Appendix B let us know no matter what background people have, as long as they are willing to understand and study ethics, they can possess the ethical code. Personal Reflection and Conclusion I always ask myself what does ethics mean? What kind of action belongs to ethical or unethical? Is any behavior within laws ethical issue? However, we have to face ethical decisions in our daily lives, and we always sink into the ethical dilemma because of these decisions.For example, we will make some excuses to avoid trouble, and we will use some white lies to make others feel more acceptable. We always ignore ethics in some trivial things, and ethics becomes strangers around us. This b ook has very helpful to me. I know that I am not a real ethical man. For example, I used fake excuses to explain my absences; or a bad grade to my parents, as well as use profanity to someone. Now all these behaviors seem wrong. In the past time, I always use different excuses to avoid responsibility when I got into some troubles, and put all the blame upon someone or something else.Now I think carefully; avoiding responsibility is unethical behavior. Individual development and social development should not lack communication and responsibility. If everyone is not sincere and they choose to avoid responsibility when faced the trouble, the individual and social development cannot be achieved, not mention to creating a real life environment. Therefore, building a good personal code is very important to everyone. We are always bothered by the issue that seems ethical, but indeed it’s not.Different people have different values, so they have different ethical lines. Some consider that the white lie is moral; someone may consider that the rational avoidance tax also is moral. People always abandon their principle to do some things which they consider are ethical, but indeed they are not. Thus, people slowly lose their moral bottom line because of these tiny little issues, and then, make them into the gray areas to do something that seems legal, but indeed it’s unethical. If everyone stays in the gray area, nobody will be honest with each other anymore.Therefore, in order to correct our values and life attitude, we should build a personal code which cannot be broken by any excuses. Before doing anything or making any decision, we should consider own personal code and use it to restrain our behaviors, which give us no excuse to do anything that violates ethics. The authors Ronald A. Howard and Clinton D. Korver together created Ethics for the Real World-creating a personal code to guide decisions in work and life, they clearly define what ethics is and u se bright black and white contrast to make us know better the meaning of ethics.Moreover, because of the sufficient experience, the essence of this book is easier to be accepted and studied and has a profound meaning in our daily work and life. The reason why I choose this book is I am always bothered by the ethics bottom line in the daily work and life. Sometimes ignore ethics because of the tiny little things. As a result, I slowly lose my ethics bottom line. Now think carefully; this is a wrong behavior and life attitude. This book opened my eyes; it teaches me that not only everyone should have their own ethical code and personal code, but also we should build our principle to do everything.No matter when we do anything or make decisions, we should base them on this personal code. Let our life be surrounded by ethics. Reference Clinton D. Korver, Bloomberg Businessweek, 2008, Retrieved from: http://www. businessweek. com/bios/Clinton_D. _Korver. htm Clinton D. â€Å"Clint† Korver’89 2001, Grinnell College, 2008, Retrieve from: http://www. grinnell. edu/offices/president/trustee/memberintro/korver Ronald A. Howard, Decision Education Foundation, 2011, Retrieve from: http://www. decisioneducation. org/about-DEF/board-of-directors/ronald-howard

Current Ethical issue essays

Current Ethical issue essays The newspaper article read, Iraq prisoner abuse detailed. At least one Iraqi prisoner died after interrogation, some were threatened with attack dogs and others were kept naked in tiny cells without running water or ventilation, according to an account written by military police sergeant who supervised a group o U.S. soldiers charged in a growing scandal over prisoner abuse in Iraq. The account of Staff Sgt. Ivan Chip Frederick portrayed a prison that spun out of control last fall as thousands of captured Iraqis poured into razor-wire confines (Honolulu Advertiser, Sunday May 2, 2004). The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of war, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, entered into force October 21, 1950. Article 13 states, Prisoners of war must at all times be humanely treated. Any unlawful act or omission by the Detaining Power causing death or seriously endangering the health of a prisoner of war in its custody is prohibited, and will be regarded as a serious breach of the present Convention. In particular, no prisoner of war may be subjected to physical mutilation or to medical or scientific experiments of any kind, which are not justified by the medical, dental, or hospital treatment of the prisoner concerned and carried out in his interest. Likewise, prisoners of war must at all times be protected, particularly against acts of violence or intimidation, and against insults and public curiosity. Measures of reprisal against prisoners of war are prohibited (University of Minnesota Human Rights Library, May 4, 2004). What would cause a military police sergeant in the United States Armed Forces to make such an obvious breach of the Geneva Convention? I think many Americans are quick to judge, without taking all the facts into account, or for that matter ever being in a wartime situation, such as Ivan Frederick. The article in the Honolulu Advertiser stated, In some cases, as few as a dozen U.S. ...

Digital logic lab introduction Essays

Digital logic lab introduction Essays Digital logic lab introduction Paper Digital logic lab introduction Paper After connecting 7404 hex inverter and making sure the connections were made the right way we could turn on the CADET station. 7. We had to use the logic probe in order to et the output which we would assign as Is as high and So as IoW 8. When we used the probe on different pins of the inverter 7404 (see Picture 1, Appendix) we noticed that ground connection was IoW no matter what as well as input was corresponding to the IoW when switch was off and high when switch was on. The obtained output was inverted when the switch was on it was IoW and high when the switch was off. Pin 14 stayed at a constant voltage not depending on the position of the switch. After replacing the wire connecting pin 14 to the +V we get the IoW probe 9. After we touched the probe on pin and pin we noticed that the logic levels were complemented: a. The probe on pin indicated IoW and after flipping the switch it indicated high b. The probe on pin indicated high and after flipping the switch it indicated IoW 10. After connecting pin to the frequency generator TTL output and setting the frequency to 1 Hzs we observed a low blinking indicator (around 1 blink per sec). 11. When we increased frequency of the signal to 100 kHz we observed a pulsating high indicator which we could be only seen on the logic probe which gave us reason to think that such a high frequency generated alternating output. 12. The investigation of the 7486 exclusive OR (XEROX) by connecting 2 logic switches and a logic indicator to the two inputs and the output of the XEROX gates gave us following results the output was IoW only when both of the switches are IoW and one of the switches was on IoW and another on high ; and the output was high only when both switches were on high. Which was identical to the theoretical data (see Picture 2 Appendix). 13. The behavior of the following chips is provided below in the Table 1 (please see Appendix) please notice that in the table e refer to the AND Functionality when both of the switches are located on the same position and OR Functionality refers to when one of the switches is on and another is off. Results and Conclusion The ICC Chips which behavior we observed in our experiments were connected to the CADET Station, the experimentally obtained data proved that logic gates functioned exactly as intended. We connected the inputs to logic switches, and the outputs to logic indicators as needed we used the logic probe in order to see the obtained the outputs for the given logic gates (see Table 1, Appendix) and compared hem to theoretical values in both cases outputs were the same. It was vital to perform the connections well with the supervision of the instructor in order to obtain the correct results in order to perform this successful experiment from design to implementation and verification.

Writing a Process Analysis Essay †Pro-Academic-Writers.com

Writing a Process Analysis Essay Process Analysis Essay Writing: Tips, Structure, Advice Most of you are afraid of analysis essay and everything that comes with it. We must say that any writing process can be exciting, yes even research paper writing. All you need to do is to be familiar with the topic and the entire format. Definition Let’s start of what the process analysis article, also called an expository essay, is. This is a writing process of paper that is aimed to explain the fact or action. Briefly speaking, it is about classic â€Å"How to† topic. All steps and stages of processing should be carefully sequenced in a list. It is a very common process, and if you have written an essay before, you have an advantage already. Contents Contents Definition Process analysis essay writing in stages Process analysis essay tips Contents Introduction Body paragraphs Conclusion Some writing advice Process analysis essay writing in stages So, let’s start with the structure and its developing. The main analysis process flows in few main directions. Like any other paper, this article has three main parts: Introduction, Body, and Conclusion. It is not always necessary to start with the Introduction first. Lots of students and their tutors prefer to start the creative process from the Body paragraphs. Anyway, the introductory part should be the opener for the entire essay. It should contain a brief presentation of your topic. That is the reason some people do the Body paragraphs first. It gives them a clearer view on how to write their introduction more relevant. Speaking about the process analysis essay, we must note that an author should also include a list of equipment and tools that are used in the process he is explaining in his essay. As like in argumentative essay resources are vital for this paper. Resources also should be on the list. This part makes an expository essay different from other academic paper types. If any equipment parts or tool are not available in your area, you should mention and explain it in your paper. Besides that, you should list all potential risks for the process if there are any. Just tell your reader what he or she should avoid while recreating the process you are explaining. And here is the Body part. The entire process you are analyzing in your article should go absolutely accurately and in a sequential order. Some stages may require separate processes. For example, if you are talking about how to make pasta, you need to undertake such stages as sauce and presentation. And this point is very tricky. You need to separate all those processes correctly to avoid any confusions and misunderstandings between you and a reader. Process analysis essay tips Here are few words about what you should do in every part of your process essay: Introduction Present your topic to the audience and tell briefly what the entire action all about is. Tell about the relevance of the process you are describing. Come up with your own experience example. Body paragraphs Divide your writing into few main paragraphs. Get each step of your instruction in a different paragraph. All transitions between steps should be slight and logical. Try to make your presentation more descriptive. Conclusion Get your whole content summarized. Do not sequence all those steps once again. Just shoot the main points due to their relevancy. Do the description of the ideal result. Some writing advice A process analysis or expository article is not a tough task to deal with. Of course, some technical instructions would be challenging for you if you are a philosophy student. But we are all familiar with that style, and you just need to keep it in your mind. Just set that specific explanatory tone to your audience, and your task will be perfect. Make your words sound neutral. Read few examples online or just grab an instruction for your mobile phone. No slang and briefings. Use that standard language we all know and don’t use with our friends. If you still have any questions and difficulties with your process analysis essay, our company is 24/7 ready to help you out. Just calm down and let us know about your problems in our order form. .section-promo { padding: 2rem 0 0; background-color: #313545; } .section-promo .p-l-1 { border-left: 1px solid #52c8f5; } .section-promo .section__heading { color: #ffffff; font-size: 36px; font-weight: 700; padding-top: 5rem; } .section-promo .section__text { color: #ffffff; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; } .section-promo .section__subheading { color: #ffffff; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 500; } @media (max-width: 991px) { .section-promo .p-l-1 { margin: 2rem 0; } .section-promo .section__images { width: 180px; margin-top: 6rem; } } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-promo .p-l-1 { padding-left: .7rem !important; padding-right: .7rem !important; padding: 2rem .7rem; border-left: none; margin: 0; background-color: #282a34; margin-left: -15px; margin-right: -15px; } .section-promo .section__heading { padding-top: 1rem; font-size: 18px; text-align: center; } .section-promo .section__subheading { text-align: center; font-size: 16px; } .section-promo .section__text { text-align: center; font-size: 12px; } .section-promo .section__images { width: 150px; margin-top: 0; margin: 0 auto; } } .section-contents { position: relative; } .section-contents::before { content: url("/static/img/regular/pro-academic-writers-2pic.png"); position: absolute; width: 338px; height: 148px; right: 0; top: 50%; z-index: -1; } @media (max-width: 1750px) { .section-contents::before { width: 250px; } } @media (max-width: 1566px) { .section-contents::before { display: none; } } .section-contents .section__contents { width: 90%; margin: 4rem 0 2rem 10%; border: 2px dashed #313545; background-color: #f4f4f4; display: -ms-flexbox; display: flex; -ms-flex-pack: distribute; justify-content: space-around; } .section-contents .section__item { -ms-flex-item-align: center; align-self: center; display: -ms-flexbox; display: flex; -ms-flex-direction: column; flex-direction: column; -ms-flex-pack: center; justify-content: center; -ms-flex-align: center; align-items: center; background-color: #313545; border-radius: 50%; transform: scale(1.4); position: relative; left: -5rem; } .section-contents .section__title { color: #ffffff; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase; transform: scale(0.5); position: relative; top: .5rem; } .section-contents .section__icon svg { width: 88px; height: 88px; transform: scale(0.8); } .section-contents .section__list { display: -ms-flexbox; display: flex; -ms-flex-align: center; align-items: center; } .section-contents .section__list ul li { color: #313545; font-size: 20px; font-weight: 700; margin: .3rem 0; } .section-contents .section__heading { color: #242732; font-size: 30px; font-weight: 400; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-contents .section__heading { font-size: 18px; } } .section-contents .section__text { color: #313545; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; line-height: 24px; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-contents .section__text { font-size: 12px; } } @media (max-width: 991px) { .section-contents .section__contents { width: 100%; margin: 4rem 0 2rem 0; } .section-contents .section__item { left: 0; transform: none; margin: 0 1rem; } .section-contents .section__list { width: 50%; } .section-contents .section__list ul.list-normal { margin-left: 0.5rem; } .section-contents .section__list ul.list-normal li { font-size: 16px; } } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-contents .section__item { display: none; } .section-contents .section__contents { -ms-flex-direction: column; flex-direction: column; padding: 0; } .section-contents .section__head { background-color: #313545; padding: .5rem; color: #ffffff; font-size: 20px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase; text-align: center; margin-top: -0.2rem; margin-left: -.2rem; margin-right: -.2rem; margin-bottom: 1rem; } .section-contents .section__list { width: 100%; } .section-contents .section__list ul.list-normal { margin: 0; } .section-contents .section__list ul.list-normal li { font-size: 12px; } .section-contents .section__list ul.list-normal li:first-child { margin-top: 0; } } .section-process { padding: 4rem 0; background-color: #b4eaff; background-image: radial-gradient(circle 950px at center, rgba(180, 234, 255, 0) 0%, #71d5fc 100%); } .section-process .section__heading { color: #313545; font-size: 30px; font-weight: 400; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-process .section__heading { font-size: 18px; } } .section-process .section__images { position: absolute; width: 489px; height: 550px; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-process .section__images { display: none; } } .section-process .section__text { color: #313545; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; } .section-process .section__subheading { position: relative; display: inline-block; color: #313545; font-size: 24px; font-weight: 700; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-process .section__subheading { font-size: 16px; } } .section-process .section__subheading::after { content: ''; display: inline-block; position: absolute; width: 572px; height: 2px; background-color: #313545; left: 107%; top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%); } .section-process .section__subheading::before { content: ''; display: inline-block; position: absolute; width: 12px; height: 12px; background-color: #313545; border-radius: 50%; right: -1rem; top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%); } .section-process .section__list ul { margin-left: 0; } .section-process .section__list ul li { color: #313545; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; } .section-process .section__list ul li::before { color: #40aa45; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-process .section__list ul li { font-size: 12px; } } .section-seo { background-color: #d8f4ff; padding: 4rem 0; } .section-seo .section__heading { color: #313545; font-size: 30px; font-weight: 400; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-seo .section__heading { font-size: 18px; text-align: center; } } .section-seo .section__text { color: #313545; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 400; } @media (max-width: 767px) { .section-seo .section__text { font-size: 12px; text-align: center; } }

My Experience of a Stressful Situation Personal Statement

My Experience of a Stressful Situation - Personal Statement Example Since I have adopted a healthy nutrition agenda, my life has become better and it has transcended in the different life realms ever since. I can easily deduce that this has been the biggest task that I have attained to date and there is no reason why I should deny the same. The healthy nutrition was backed up by psychological body systems which aided in my grooming and development. It has been the basis of who I am and how I envision life in its truest fashion. I can easily fathom that these two points have helped me adopt a healthy lifestyle which has facilitated my life like never before. The obstacles that I overcame during this process comprised the habits that I had to get rid of in order to choose a healthy lifestyle. It assisted me immensely towards adequately comprehending how things will shape up and how I as an individual needed to change the course if life in one way or the other. 2. Describe what an "underserved population" means to you. What are ways that a pharmacist ca n serve and impact underserved patient populations? By an underserved population, I hold the opinion that this is one segment of the society which is not being taken care of in a proper manner. These are the people who lack in basic healthcare settings, have a shortage of food and are not in close contact with the availability of water resources. This is the segment that is not being looked after and there are a number of reasons why this has happened within the domains of any society of the world. The underserved population is basically not being given its due share as the entire population must be treated in a fair and equal manner; however, this is hardly the case when one speaks of this form of a segment. As a pharmacist, the role can be of immense significance as far as serving the underserved population is concerned. These are the individuals who can give medicines which are of equal use and effectiveness yet low in price as compared to a higher alternative.

Midterm questions and answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Midterm questions and answers - Essay Example 2b. TUFS system can be described as a qualifier; since it replaces the inefficient manual system that was being used previously, through making it easy for the underwriters and their managers to communicate and develop reports easily (Smith and McKeen, 68). 3a.The advantage of agile project management is that it allows all the stakeholders to be involved in the system development process, through providing an interactive forum where they can give their contribution. The advantage of system development life cycle project development methodology is that it first evaluates the necessity of the study, through undertaking a feasibility study to determine the possible benefits of the system. The disadvantage of system development life cycle project development methodology is that it takes long to complete the project, while the agile project management does not undertake a feasibility study first (Smith and McKeen, 67). 4. Martin Drysdale should first develop app For TUFS on the Apple Ios, since it is an advanced version of computer operating system, making it compatible with computer operations that are necessary for TUFS

Writing a physics report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Writing a physics report - Essay Example nal velocity â€Å"v† (of the centre of mass) in terms of â€Å"x† and â€Å"t† for the object to roll a distance 1m along the plank in average time t for each side of the plank (experimental velocity). The disk exhibits both rotational motion and transitional motion as it rolls down the plank. Since it rolls without slipping, its bottom is momentarily at rest and the distance, velocity, and acceleration of the centre of mass is directly related to the angle of rotation, angular velocity, and angular acceleration of the centre of mass. The total mechanical energy of the disk is the sum of its kinetic energy of its centre of mass, rotational energy about its centre of mass and gravitational potential energy of its centre of mass. The total time for the sides are different, time for when the plank is warped concave up is longer than when the concave is warped down since the disk faces higher friction when the concave is warped up hence taking more time and energy in overcoming friction to reach the end Predicted velocity is lower on both cases as evidenced by the data i.e. predicted velocity is 0.7672m/s while velocity in the first and second case are 0.7968m/s and 0.813m/s respectively. This is so because predicted velocity does not take care of friction effects and errors in performing the

Explore the main reasons for political behavior in organizations Essay

Explore the main reasons for political behavior in organizations - Essay Example Imbalance between personal ambition of employees and interest of the organization. A sense of competition among employees whereby one employee tends to create a better impression on the management and presents are dark image of the others Is politics necessarily a negative force Politics play a central role in all organizations, but questions are now increasingly being raised on its effects on an organization. It is a common practice to paint organizational politics in black but a growing body of evidence suggests that managing it can have extremely powerful positive effects (Butcher and Clarke 2006) There are several real time examples where politics has proved to be helpful for the organization A recent report asserts that 58% managers say 'they have experienced the constructive use of office politicc and 61% say they have personally engaged in political behaviour which resulted in a positive outcome for their organisation'. (Park R. The Power of Constructive Politics) References Butcher D and Clarke M Using Politics in Organisations ,Smart Management Coady, C "Politics and the Problem of Dirty Hands," in A Companion to Ethics, ed. P. Singer (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), p. 373. For references to the extensive literature see Coady's article and M. Stocker, Plural and Conflicting Values (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990) pp. 9-10. Hoch C What planners do : power, politics, and persuasion Chicago, Ill. : Planners Press : American Planning Association, 1994. www.roffeypark.com/research Summary "32% of managers believe it simply isn't possible to use office politics constructively because human nature is so appallingly selfish that people will always guard their... The sources of power (people at higher position referred to as legitimate power, groups in position to help, people in position to punish and reward referred to as coercive and reward power respectively) A recent report asserts that 58% managers say 'they have experienced the constructive use of office politicc and 61% say they have personally engaged in political behaviour which resulted in a positive outcome for their organisation'. (Park R. The Power of Constructive Politics) Coady, C "Politics and the Problem of Dirty Hands," in A Companion to Ethics, ed. P. Singer (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), p. 373. For references to the extensive literature see Coady's article and M. Stocker, Plural and Conflicting Values (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990) pp. 9-10. "32% of managers believe it simply isn't possible to use office politics constructively because human nature is so appallingly selfish that people will always guard their turf and abuse their role power" Roffey Park, 2006 Politics at the organizational level is similar but not the same as world or national politics. The former is best defined as the use of power and influence to gain personal ends. In some cases this is done with a complete disregard for the employer or the organization.

Presentation proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Presentation proposal - Assignment Example Palliative care is a medical care for individuals who have illnesses that are life threatening. It focuses care on providing specialized care to individuals who have serious illness. In most cases, the illnesses are progressive and they lead to death of the individuals. Palliative care provides relief to patients from the symptoms and pains of the illness. The main objective of palliative care is to maintain the life of the patients. In addition to, palliative care, maintains the life of the individuals and their family members. During this treatment, curing the patients is not the first priority of the medical staff. The medical staff manages the symptoms the patients because it is part of the health care. They are also entitled to maintaining the emotions of the patients. Taking care of patients at home is a big commitment and individuals must be ready to sacrifice. There are many factors that determine the best place to provide medical care to a patient. The condition of the patient is among the factors used to determine the best place to provide care for individuals. Doctors must choose the best advice when providing palliative care to patients (Morrissey, 2013).  ).There are advantages and limitations of both setting to the patient depending on the condition of the patient. The patient and family members decide on the home setting as the ideal place to receive treatment. Advantages of a home based setting include being closer to the patient. It is important because it saves the time spent to make frequent visits to the hospital. The feeling of being in familiar surrounding and with familiar individuals is crucial for individuals with chronic illnesses. The individual may have medical conditions that may not be acceptable at home. Presence of facilities helps to address most of the conditions of patients. The cost of providing palliative care at home is higher than providing it in the hospital (Morrissey,

FCB Australia Agency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

FCB Australia Agency - Essay Example at run through a haze of corporate and organizational assumptions and goals have been invariably influenced by the relative importance of dynamic event-oriented outcomes including those related to the benchmarking organizational efforts (www.adage.com/datacenter/2008) . 1.1. Organizational Structure of Draft FCBThe organizational structure of Draft FCB Australia is said to be unique in that it's probably the only organization with a unified agency structure thus delivering its communications services through-the-lines capabilities to a diverse and complex group of clientele. The operational structure in regional agencies like that of Australia and New Zealand is democratically structured with a country head or director in charge. The company's optimal operational structure with the Integration Committee of 35 individuals is headed by a president and a world chief creative officer. Three major tiers can be identified in its managerial and operational hierarchy. The first tier at the top is occupied by the President, the Chief Executive Officer and the Global Chief Creative Officer. Immediately under the above triumvirate comes the layer of Integration Committee Members who assume both executive powers and accountability to the top management (Briggs & Stuart, 2006). Each Committee member is responsible for the design, planning and implementation of the company's integration policy in a few assigned countries. The third tier is occupied by those senior managers whose responsibilities include the planning and execution of strategy. Thus many responsibilities for day-to-day operational management of Draft FCB Australian Agency are assumed by this Integration Committee. Despite the fact that country operations are carried out on an individual unit... FCB Australia Agency Draft way back in 1978 was engaged in direct marketing as an agency and was then known as Kobs & Brady. In the year 1986 it was sold to Ted Bates Worldwide and Howard Draft who was an accounts executive in the company then was passed along to the new management. In 1988 Draft became its Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and the Chairman. As a result the Agency was named Kobs & Draft. Again in 1995 the ownership of the Agency was reverted to Draft and was called Draft Direct Worldwide. In 1996, the Interpublic Group of Companies acquired Draft Direct Worldwide. With the merger of the two companies in 2006, Draft FCB became the biggest advertising agency in Chicago. As at present the Agency in Chicago has approximately 11,000 employees and the world-wide offices including the Draft FCB Australia are headed by Howard Draft, as the Executive Chairman, Laurence Boschetto, as the CEO and president, Jonathan Harries, as the Vice Chairman and Global Chief Creative Officer and Neil Miller, CFO. Draft FCB Australia Agency has acquired a unique distinction of being one of the leading advert agencies in the whole country. This unique positron is attributed to its remarkable accounts growth with best of clients. Draft FCB Australia has been successfully orienting itself to meeting not only the challenges posed by its competitors, both small and big, but also been able to achieve an ever expanding growth trajectory in keeping with its global strategy of being creating value through-the-line.

Presentation proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Presentation proposal - Assignment Example Palliative care is a medical care for individuals who have illnesses that are life threatening. It focuses care on providing specialized care to individuals who have serious illness. In most cases, the illnesses are progressive and they lead to death of the individuals. Palliative care provides relief to patients from the symptoms and pains of the illness. The main objective of palliative care is to maintain the life of the patients. In addition to, palliative care, maintains the life of the individuals and their family members. During this treatment, curing the patients is not the first priority of the medical staff. The medical staff manages the symptoms the patients because it is part of the health care. They are also entitled to maintaining the emotions of the patients. Taking care of patients at home is a big commitment and individuals must be ready to sacrifice. There are many factors that determine the best place to provide medical care to a patient. The condition of the patient is among the factors used to determine the best place to provide care for individuals. Doctors must choose the best advice when providing palliative care to patients (Morrissey, 2013).  ).There are advantages and limitations of both setting to the patient depending on the condition of the patient. The patient and family members decide on the home setting as the ideal place to receive treatment. Advantages of a home based setting include being closer to the patient. It is important because it saves the time spent to make frequent visits to the hospital. The feeling of being in familiar surrounding and with familiar individuals is crucial for individuals with chronic illnesses. The individual may have medical conditions that may not be acceptable at home. Presence of facilities helps to address most of the conditions of patients. The cost of providing palliative care at home is higher than providing it in the hospital (Morrissey,

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Example for Free

Lieducation in preliterate societies Essay Education, History of, theories, methods, and administration of schools and other agencies of information from ancient times to the present. Education developed from the human struggle for survival and enlightenment. It may be formal or informal. Informal education refers to the general social process by which human beings acquire the knowledge and skills needed to function in their culture. Formal education refers to the process by which teachers instruct students in courses of study within institutions. Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans. To survive, preliterate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational patterns. For a particular group’s culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it, or pass it on, from adults to children. The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture. Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the skills and roles they would need as adults. These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to express their ideas. When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy. IIIEDUCATION IN ANCIENT AFRICA AND ASIA In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the sciences, mathematics, and architecture. Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about 1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy. Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC (see China: The Eastern Zhou). The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings of Confucius, Laozi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers. IVEDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal education. The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of group identity. In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homer’s epics served important educational purposes. The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homer’s work, such as Agamemnon, Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks. Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis, such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens. Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the population. Only the sons of free citizens attended school. The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to perform his civic duties and for his own personal development. The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek city-state. In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not attend school. Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little. Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education for military training and drill. In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan soldiers. In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone who wished to learn it. They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing their students to argue persuasively and win  arguments than in teaching principles of truth and morality. Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness. Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the Socratic method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or universal concepts. He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time, education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy. Plato’s Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republic’s second class of people. The lowest class, the workers, provide food and the other products for all the people of the republic. In Plato’s ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of instruction to prepare for their various roles in society. In 335 BC Plato’s student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these laws in their lives. He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes. In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as government officials. Isocrates’s students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocrates’s methods of education directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian. VEDUCATION IN ANCIENT ROME While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks’ education focused on the study of philosophy. The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and civil administration. As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes. While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home, boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues. After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and administration. Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic, mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military science, natural science, geography, history, and law. Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood to adulthood. Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make their lessons suited to the student’s readiness and ability to learn new material. He urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive. VIANCIENT JEWISH EDUCATION Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that God revealed truth to them in the Bible. Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law. Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism. Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study. VIIMEDIEVAL EDUCATION During the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity, particularly the Roman Catholic Church. The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level. Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings. The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities. Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics and the code of chivalry. As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns. The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate (see Serfdom). In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain, Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural science, medicine, and philosophy. The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy. Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages, they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averroes had not preserved them. In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible. Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek philosophy. Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris. Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teacher’s vocation as one that combines faith, love, and learning. The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris, Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries. The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine. VIIIEDUCATION DURING THE RENAISSANCE The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and reached its height in the 15th century. Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics. The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art, literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important. Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture. The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely available and increased literacy rates (see Printing). But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if any, formal schooling. Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools. Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance, especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools of the royal court or received private lessons at home. The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited for females. For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to training in household duties such as cooking and sewing. IXEDUCATION DURING THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe. Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian, or Protestant, churches. In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils. As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters, Protestant educators wrote catechisms—primary books that summarized their religious doctrine—in a question and answer format. While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities. Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were leaders of the Reformation. Since the family shaped children’s character, Luther encouraged parents to teach their children reading and religion. Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating literate, productive, and religious citizens. One of Luther’s colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the school code for the German region of Wurttemberg, which became a model for other regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing teachers. The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared upper-class males for higher education. XEDUCATIONAL THEORY IN THE 17TH CENTURY Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education. Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly influential. A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to bring about worldwide understanding and peace. Comenius advised teachers to use children’s senses rather than memorization in instruction. To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked (1631), a book for teaching Latin in the student’s own language. He also wrote Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one of the first illustrated books written especially for children. The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and North America. Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or tabula rasa, and empty of ideas. We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine them into more complex ones. Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones. In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs efficiently. He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Locke’s curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French, mathematics, history, physical education, and games. XIEDUCATION DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in education and educational theory. During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical thinking. The Enlightenment’s ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution (1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and scientific education in American schools. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy. XIIEDUCATION IN THE 19TH CENTURY The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural world and the senses. Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes. Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation and that teaching should use the senses. Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment, Pestalozzi developed a so-called â€Å"object lesson† that involved exercises in learning form, number, and language. Pupils determined and traced an object’s form, counted objects, and named them. Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading. Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching: (1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts; (2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and remote; (3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and (4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly. American educator Henry Barnard, the first U. S. Commissioner of Education, introduced Pestalozzi’s ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all classes of American society. German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a highly structured teaching technique. Maintaining that education’s primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate education. Knowledge, he said, should create an â€Å"apperceptive mass†Ã¢â‚¬â€a network of ideas—in a person’s mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history, geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and arithmetic. Based on his work, Herbart’s followers designed a five-step teaching method: (1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson, (2) present the new lesson, (3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier, (4) use examples to illustrate the lesson’s major points, and (5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson. AKindergarten German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of preschool education that literally means â€Å"child’s garden† in German. Froebel, who had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to find insights they could use in their teaching. Froebel studied at Pestalozzi’s institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810. While agreeing with Pestalozzi’s emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzi’s method was not philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every child’s inner self contained a spiritual essence—a spark of divine energy—that enabled a child to learn independently. In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and cultural values. Games developed children’s social and physical skills. By playing with each other, children learned to participate in a group. Froebel’s gifts, including such objects as spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could be used to build castles, cities, and mountains. Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States, where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855. Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U. S. commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public school system. BSocial Darwinism British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British naturalist Charles Darwin. Spencer revised Darwin’s biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education. Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler societies, the â€Å"fittest† individuals of each generation survived because they were intelligent and adaptable. Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its activities to the bare minimum. He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most capable teachers. Spencer’s social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies. Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities: (1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise; (2) those needed to perform one’s occupation so that a person can earn a living, including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the sciences; (3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly; (4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and (5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencer’s ideas on education were eagerly accepted in the United States. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the National Education Association, used Spencer’s list of activities in its recommendations for American education. XIIINATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries organized national systems of public education. The United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South America also established national education systems based largely on European models. AIn the United Kingdom. The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism, reading, writing, and arithmetic. In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students’ performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests. The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools conducted by the churches and other private organizations. In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used monitorial methods of instruction. Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct the large number of new students. Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education concentrated on basic skills—reading, writing, and arithmetic—that were broken down into small parts or units. After a monitor had learned a unit—such as spelling words of two or three letters that began with the letter A—he would, under the master teacher’s supervision, teach this unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education. BIn Russia Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education Statute of 1864. This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools. In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish schools. While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russia’s population remained illiterate. Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would make people discontented with their lives, the tsar’s government provided only limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety. CIn the United States Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States was organized on a local or regional level. Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively. However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children. In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by 1918 all U. S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws. See Public Education in the United States. XIVEDUCATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator Ellen Key influenced education around the world. Key’s book Barnets arhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in various countries. Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion. Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of Italy. AMontessori Montessori’s methods of early childhood education have become internationally popular. Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her teaching methods could be used to educate all children. In 1907 Montessori established a children’s school, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities based on her observations of children. She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn independently if provided a properly stimulating environment. Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal, washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners. Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior. In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay

Logistics And Supply Chain Management Definitions Business Essay In modern competitive business world, every organization strives for excellence. To achieve and maintain this, the organization needs to put in all necessary measures to remain competitive within the industry it finds itself. One of such measures is logistics excellence. (Durin et al 2011). A major contributing function for organizational excellence has to do with the management of its logistics. However in recent times, logistics excellence is taken for granted and presumed to be the norm, but only to be recognized when there emerges some major problem.  [1]   Since the Criminal Libel Law was taken off the statutes books in 2001, the Ghanaian media landscape is currently touted or hipped as one of the most independent media regimes in the West African sub-region. This has led to the proliferation of print and electronic media to the extent that the media market is currently becoming saturated.  [2]  According to the National Media Commission (NMC, 2006), Ghana has 106 newspapers made up of 11 dailies, 67 weeklies, 23 bi-weeklies and five tri-weeklies. More than 50% of the news papers currently in circulation have come into existence in recent years. Many of them have sprung up in the past five years, providing readers with a wide range of new publications. At national level, among the 11 national dailies, the state-owned Daily Graphic is the oldest and most widely-read newspaper in Ghana, and it is distributed in all 120 districts nationwide. Established in 1950 and 100% government-owned, the Daily Graphic currently has the highest circulation figure.  [3]  The companys leadership role in the print media as indicated above began before the advent of the repeal of the criminal libel law. It is interesting to note that Ghanaians casually refer to any media print at first glance as graphic. This not withstanding demonstrates the strength the company draws from this brand name. However, due to the proliferation of other print media as a result of the repeal of the criminal libel law, fierce competition has started to emerge within this industry. The state owned and private print media market is becoming saturated to the extent that almost all media prints virtually sell at the same price. An example of such are the, Ghanaian Times, The Mirror, The Ghanaian Observer, 90 Minutes, Accra Daily Mail, and the Weekly Spectator which sells at GH 1.50, whilst others like The Daily Guide, The Dispatch, Daily Graphic, The Guide, The Statesman and Business and Financial Times also sell at GH2.00. One way to retain customers and remain competitive and, at the same time increase bottom-line margins has been to cut down prices. Interestingly, price reduction in this instance may not be very possible because market shares are somewhat fixed and would lead to lesser margins instead. A better way for companies to still make profits and remain viable is to embark on an effective and efficient logistics management system (Christopher, 2011). This is because sales revenue increases would be more difficult to achieve than logistics cost reductions. The effective management of logistics activities such as customer service, distribution and reverse logistics would play significant roles alongside other logistics activities in improving an organizations stance in such an environment. Reverse logistics to a considerable extent is not well known and not practiced within the Ghanaian business environment. This is because logistics has been looked at in most instances from only one perspective. It has always been looked at from the point where products are manufactured, packaged, stored in a warehouse, sold, and then shipped to the customer and the process ends. However there are more dimensions to this. In addition to managing outbound goods, logistics managers are also responsible for the flow of returned goods, re-packaging, including customer service and final disposition of returned items.  [4]   Considering the print media for instance, the issue of unsold media prints could be looked at as waste since they cannot be sold the next day. The need to manage waste materials and returned goods is fast growing in all kinds of industries. Currently, companies notably Xerox, Eastman Kodak, Mobil, Home Depot, and Ethan Allen Furniture to name just a few, have recycling programs that meet the needs of their individual industries.  [5]  Although these are foreign companies, they derive numerous advantages and benefits from the relevance of reverse logistics practices. In a way these could be very much applicable to most organizations in Ghana for which GCGL is not an exception. Undoubtedly, most firms are now recognizing reverse logistics as a component of the total logistics management process. Stock (1998) and Hansen Harps( 2002) advocated that innovative firms that develop an expertise in reverse logistics activities and considers them as a set of business process adds value, generate revenue, improve customer satisfaction, achieve significant cost savings and gain competitive edge in their various markets. The GCGL stands the chance of gaining all these benefits as well as competitive advantage over its competitors in the area of cost reduction, enhanced quality, branding of their product and maximizing customers loyalty when reverse logistics practices are effectively adopted. Reverse logistics has the following benefits: Enhance Customer Service. The customers perspective is one key economic element driving organizations to develop reverse logistics strategy. Customers now consider returns policies when making purchasing decisions. If GCGL makes its returns policies more restrictive while its competitors continue to offer liberal returns policies, the firm will have placed itself at a competitive disadvantage. The whole purpose of logistics strategy is to provide customers with the level and quality of service that they require and to do so at less cost to the total supply chain. ( Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) Distinguish itself with Customers. Embarking on an effective reverse logistics strategy will offer GCGL the opportunity to differentiate or distinguish itself with customers. This is because how a company handles returns is often evaluated by customers as an important factor to choose when a future purchase happens. According to Daugherty et al (2002), a well designed reverse logistics system can promote longer-term relationships. Furthermore, customers are more likely to buy from retailers who outperform other retailers on returns handling. Knock Off Competition. GCGL management will stands to benefit from the knowledge of the companys logistical performance which could be used to influence decisions and aid in the formulation of corporate goals and objectives to offset competition. Achieve Green Image. The GCGL by engaging in reverse logistics stands to gain a good environmental image with the customer which could invariably promote better customer relations. Having such an image can be part of a customer relationship strategy, especially due to the increase of environmental consciousness by society as a whole. The overall reverse logistics programme effectiveness will have indirect benefits for the firm, such as better corporate image or improved levels of customer satisfaction to retain customers and as well stand the competition within the industry. (Jayaraman and Luo2007) Need to Control Costs. Frequently, manufacturers treat recovery of products and packaging as an afterthought. A well-managed reverse-logistics program, however, can bring enormous savings in inventory-carrying, transportation, and waste-disposal costs.  [6]   Enjoys Goodwill. The goodwill associated with practicing an effective and efficient distribution and reverse logistics strategy has not been fully discovered by most companies in Ghana. The Goodwill that GCGL could earn from acting in a socially or environmentally responsible manner can produce real value. This can create substantial customer loyalty.(Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1998) 1.2 Research Problem In Ghana intense competition within the print media industry has to a large extent stabilized the price ceiling of media prints. The situation has been aggravated by political influences as political parties have delved the opportunity of coming up with their own media prints to propagate party agendas. Whilst GCGL media prints specifically the Daily Graphic has been acclaimed a national newspaper, and hence mostly report on broad national issues, many others focus and take sides on political issues that would interest party members. As a result market shares are more or less stable and only sway when a particular media print covers a more topical or sensational issue that cuts across a general national interest. The likelihood of dwindling margins cannot be over emphasized in such circumstance. The more convenient means for GCGL to make profits is to embark on an effective logistic management to cut down logistics costs and to remain competitive in business. On the other hand most organizations have not fully embraced reverse logistics for reasons best known to them regardless of the benefits that could be realized on embarking on effective reverse logistics practices. The issue is that there is little demand for knowledge within the mindsets because it has been presumed that reverse logistics inherently deals with the least favored aspect of organizational activities (Hansen Harps, 2002). This is because most firms do not view reverse logistics as a core competence but as something to be ignored as much as possible (Hansen Harps, 2002). The print media products normally have life cycles ranging from a day to maximum of about a week. What happens to unsold products and those that are no longer of use to the consumer does not seem to derive much concern from the publishers. This situation does not only create loses but also goes to add filth to our environment causing health and other environmental problems in the long run. Conducting a research to unearth the best possible means for GCGL to improve upon its current logistics management trends and practices, to improve profit margins and as well create value for their products that have ended their life cycle is the main focus of this thesis. 1.3 Research Questions In order to identify the extent of logistics management activities that GCGL is currently engaged in and analyze them, the thesis would seek answers for the following questions: How are the logistics activities pursued in the organization? What distribution system is the company employing? How is return flows managed? 1.4 Research Objectives The study has the following objectives: To identify the logistics and supply chain activities the company is engaged in To identify and assess the effectiveness of the distribution system To describe and assess the impact of reverse logistics practices on profitability 1.5 Significance of the Study The study will bring out any shortfalls that are inherent in GCGLs logistics practices and inform management adequately to develop sound logistics plans. Additionally, it will serve as a reference document for the GCGL logistics department to effectively manage their day-to-day logistics activities. The study will also be beneficial to the companys third party logistics providers, as the document will assist them to adopt the appropriate logistics procedures and hence ensure effective communication and integration among them. The thesis will also be beneficial to other print media organizations as well as those in other industries to focus on reverse logistics strategy as a source of gaining competitiveness amongst others. 1.6 Limitation of the Study 1.7 Thesis Organization The study will be organized into five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction and will comprise the background, problem statement, aims and objectives and significance of the study. Chapter two is the literature review and will highlight existing definitions and works by researchers related to the area of study. Chapter three is devoted to the methodology used in this study. The chapter looks at the study area, design of study, data collection approaches, description of the study, sampling and the constraints/problems encountered and chapter four will summarize the major discussions of the study. Chapter five will highlight on the important issues in the summary and make recommendations. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVEIW 2.1 INTRODUCTION Fierce competition in todays marketplace has forced business enterprises and organizations to invest in and focus on supply chain and logistics management to be more competitive and as well, remain in business. Logistics has now been seen as the growth and dynamic functions in the success of many different operations of an organization. Logistics activities such as distribution communication, customer service, inventory management, materials handling, packaging, and traffic and transportation procurement have led to the growth in telecommunication and transportation technologies (Rushton et al 2006). Whilst logistics is often seen as planning orientation and framework that seeks to create a single plan for the flow of products and information through a business, supply chain management builds upon this framework. It seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities within the pipeline, i.e. suppliers and customers, and the organization itself (Martin Christopher 2011). A lot of research works on the concepts of logistics and supply chain management and their impacts on the successes and failures in industries and businesses have been carried out. This paper will therefore review aspects of the available literature and research works that view logistics and supply chain management in their definitive contexts with special emphases on activities that relates to customer service, logistics distribution systems and Reverse Logistics. 2.2 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT DEFINITIONS 2.2.1 Logistics Management The term Logistics originated from the military and was used basically to describe the movement of personnel and materials during wars and also in emergencies. It was later adopted by businesses and organizations and became a part of commonly used terminology in professional societies and academic programs, and was defined in various ways to satisfy trends and developments (Rushton 2009). The Council of Logistics Management (CLM), one of the leading professional organizations for logistic uses the term logistics management to describe the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of raw materials, in- process inventory, finished goods and related information from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of conforming to customer requirements (Lambert et-al, 1999). Alan Ruston et-al (2007) defined Logistics Management by the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP) as that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements (CSCMP, 2006). Martin Christopher (2011) stated that logistics is the process of strategically managing the procurement, movement and storage of materials, parts and finished inventory (and the related information flows) through the organization and its marketing channels in such a way that current and future profitability are maximized through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Starting from the first definition, although these authors pointed out that the ultimate disposal, recycling and reuse of products should be considered as activities in logistics management, the CLM definition above was silent on them. The definition only took into consideration the forward aspect of logistics focusing on the end product reaching the final consumer according to consumers requirement. The questions here are that; what happens to the product if it does not conform to the customers requirement and also how will the product be managed after the final consumer has exhausted the full use of the product? In other words, CSCMP indicated and emphasized on forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. This definition to a considerable extent answers the questions which were ignored by the CLM as it considered reverse flows in addition. Martin Christopher stressed on how organizations could maximize current and future profitability through the cost-effective fulfillment of orders. Although the definition did not specifically mention reverse flows, it could be implied that such activities if undertaken could contribute to the organizations profitability. In summary, it could be mentioned with certainty that all the definitions above place some emphasis on logistics activities to typically include inbound and outbound transportation management, fleet management, warehousing, materials handling, order fulfillment, logistics network design, inventory management, supply/demand planning, and management of third party logistics services providers. Additionally the inclusion of sourcing and procurement, production planning and scheduling, packaging and assembly, and customer service were mentioned by Christopher. It is worth mentioning that logistics must be involved in all levels of planning and execution. This has to do with the strategic, operational and tactical levels. Planning at these levels should not be done in isolation else the synergy to be derived from the various functions would not be realized (Lambert et al 2009). Logistics management is therefore an integrating function, which coordinates and optimizes all logistics activities, as well as integrates logistics activities with other functions including marketing, sales manufacturing, finance, and information technology (Alan Mckinnon, 2001). It is essential that positive planning approach is adopted by ensuring that the operation is set up to run properly. The two parts of logistics management has to do with inbound and outbound logistics. One way to envisage the two concepts is about ensuring and managing that the operations are set up to run properly by doing the right thing or preparing for and planning the operation. Thus s upply and material management represent the storage and flows into and through the production process, whiles distribution represent the storage and flow from the final production point through to the customer or end user. Logistics management from this view point is the means whereby the needs of customers are satisfied through, the co-ordination of the materials and information flow that extends from the market place through the firm and its operation beyond that to suppliers. To achieve this, there should be a wide integration within the organization and also a synergy between the marketing and manufacturing within the organization rather than a fragment separate activities (Spekman, KamauffJr et al (1998) Logistics is therefore essentially an integrative concept that seeks to develop a system-wide view point of a firm. It is fundamentally a planning concept that seeks to create a framework through which the needs of the market can be translated into a manufacturing strategy and plan, which in turn links into a strategy and plan for procurement.  [7]   The CSCMP definition laid emphasis of logistics management being part of supply chain management which pre-supposed that other influences on the logistics activities abound to ensure their effective functioning. A working definition for Logistics Management for this thesis would therefore be the (CSCMP 2006), which states that, it is that part of supply chain management that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverses flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements. 2.2.2 Supply Chain Management Supply chain management has been mentioned in the (CSCMP 2006) definition for Logistics Management. It referred to logistics management as a subset of supply chain management. Meanwhile these two terms have been used interchangeably in most literature. Supply Chain Management has defined supply chain management as the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion, and all logistics management activities. Importantly, it also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which can be suppliers, intermediaries, third party service providers, and customers. In essence, supply chain management integrates supply and demand management within and across companies (CSCMP, 2006). Supply chain here is viewed as a single entity rather than series of fragment element such as procurement, manufacturing and distribution. It goes further to talk about the integration of information systems in the supply chain rather than merely acting in isolation for each of the separate component. It was further indicated that supply chain management is an integrating function with primary responsibility for linking major business functions and business processes within and across companies into a cohesive and high-performing business model Also, it included all of the logistics management activities noted above, as well as manufacturing operations, and indicated that it drives coordination of processes and activities within and across marketing, sales, product design, finance, and information technology (Martin Christopher2011) Christopher (2011) also defined supply chain management as the management of upstream and downstream relationships with suppliers and customers in order to deliver superior customer value at less cost to the supply chain as a whole. From the authors point of view, supply chain is the stream of processes of moving goods from the customers order through the raw materials stage from the supplier, down to the production process, work assembly, and distribution of products to the customer. He argued that supply chain management could be termed as demand chain management to reflect the fact that the chain should be driven by the market, not by suppliers. Also the word chain should be replaced by network since there will normally be multiple suppliers and, indeed, suppliers to suppliers as well as multiple customers and customers customers to be included in the total system. Extending this idea it has been suggested that a supply chain could more accurately be defined as a network of connected and interdependent organizations mutually and co-operatively working together to control, manage and improve the flow of materials and information from suppliers to end users (Christopher 2011). The CSCMPs and Martin Christophers definitions above both made mention of the fact that supply chain encompasses logistics management which is the supply, materials management and distribution but rather goes further to argue that supply chain incorporates suppliers, suppliers to suppliers , as well as multiple customers which seeks to achieve linkage and co-ordination between the processes of other entities in the pipeline and the organization itself through the sharing of information on demand. Chopra and Meindl (2007) defined supply chain as consisting of all parties involved, directly or indirectly, in fulfilling a customer request. They went on further to say supply chain includes not only the manufacturer and suppliers, but also transporters, wholesalers, retailers, and even customers themselves. Here the supply chain is referring to the customers need or what he or she intends to purchase. This implies that all the stakeholders that are involved in contributing their quota to satisfy the customer should work hand in hand to fulfill that purpose. Christopher (2011) finally indicated that all firms have supply chains of varying degrees, depending upon the size of the organization and the type of product manufactured and managing the chain of events in this process is what is known or referred to as supply chain management. He went further to state that effective management must take into account the coordination of all the different pieces of this chain as quickly as possible without losing any of the quality or customer satisfaction, while still keeping costs down. In essence, whilst logistics management deals with integration of functions within an organization, supply chain management takes care of this integration and extends it across firms in the supply chain. Figure.1 is a diagrammatic representation of logistics and supply chain management indicating how logistics is integrated in supply chain management. Raw material Components Packaging items Bought in part Imported materials Production process Work-in- progress Packaging unitization Finished goods Inventory warehouse Depots distribution End user Supply Materials management Distribution Suppliers Logistics customers Supply chain Supply side Upstream Inbound Demand side Down stream Outbound Information Transport Reverse Logistics = Supply +Materials management +Distribution Supply Chain =Suppliers+ supply +Materials management +Distribution+ Customer (Alan Ruston et al 2007: 5) 2.3 LOGISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES The domain of logistics activities is to provide customers with the right goods in the right place at the right time. It ranges from providing the necessary subcomponents for manufacturing to having inventory on the shelf of the retailer to having the correct quantity. The major issue that logistics attempts to resolve is to decide how and when raw-materials, semi-finished, and finished goods should be acquired, moved, and stored.  [8]   Ensuring an efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information as said by Rushton et al (2010) needs an effective and effecient logistics activities to be able to meet customers needs and wants at the right time, and at the right. Lambert et al (2008) and Langley (2009) both outlined the key activities required to facilitate the flow of a product from point of origin to point of consumption to meet the end user as follows: Customer Service Demand forecasting/ planning Inventory management Materials handling Order Processing Packaging Part and Service Support Warehousing and Storage Procurement/ Sourcing Return goods handling Reverse logistics Transportation Distribution Manufacturing 2.3.1 Customer Service Many attempts have been made to define the term customer service. However, depending on the organizations core business that its provides, customer service will differ. Lucas (1996) defined customer service as the ability of knowledgeable, capable, and enthusiastic employees to deliver products and services to their internal and external customers in a manner that satisfies identified and unidentified needs and ultimately result in positive mouth -to- mouth publicity and return business. Lambert et-al (1999) also used the term customer service to describe the process which takes place between the buyer, seller, and the third party. The process result in a value added to the product or service exchanged. He went on further to say that the value added in the exchange process might be short term as in a single transaction or longer term as in a contractual relationship. He again mentioned the value added is also shared, in that each of the parties to the transaction or contract is better off at that completion of the transaction than it was before the transaction took place. Lucas (1996) distinguished between internal customers and external customers. The internal customers he said comprised peers, co-workers, bosses, and subordinates, whilst eternal customers constitute vendors, suppliers, walk-in-customer, various telephone callers. Even though Lambert et al (2009) did not mention internal customers, he captured external customers in his definition and went on further to talk about value creation within the transaction period to achieve a cost effective way in the chain of activities. They stated that the value added products or services are enhanced when the time and place utility between the buyer and seller are met and as well expanded and considered. Such conditions are generally considered as the seven right of customer service. These are the right of quantity, cost, product, customer, time, place, and condition (Rushton et al, 2007). From the above, meeting the needs of customers should be very important in every organization even though it is very difficult in maintaining them and to achieve this is to make sure products and services are rendered at the right time, at the exact place in the right condition, at the right cost to add value to avoid customer complains. Rushton et al (2007), Lambert et al (1999), Christopher (2011) all emphasized on the element of customer service as, pre-transaction element, transaction element and post-transaction element. Where the pre-transaction element focuses on the companys policies concerning customer service. Transaction relates to element directly linked to physical transaction such as order cycle time, inventory availability, condition of goods, system accuracy, product substitution etc. Lastly those elements that occurred after the delivery has taken place is referred to as the post- transaction element and these include the installation of warranty, repairs and service part, return policy, customer complaints and claims. Customer service therefore plays a crucial role in organizations as far as growth and profitability are concerned. 2.3.2 Demand forecasting/Planning Demand forecast is defined as statistically based initial estimate of future demand. It is well indicated that a dem